An Analysis of Ethics In the Workplace

In the first article â€Å"What role should HR play in corporate ethics† the authors establish that HR is vital toward maintaining and building corporate ethics programs. In particular the researchers suggest that HR professionals can create programs that help facilitate open communication and enhance ethics by helping employees and management officials understand the effects non-ethical behavior may have on customers, shareholders and organizational productivity. The authors also suggest that ethics programs should be linked to all business units including finance, security and any legal organization components. An ethics program according to this author must cover multiple areas including risk assessment, organizational standards, communication, reporting and organizational assessment. I support the author's views in this article. Ethics starts by opening the lines of communication within an organization. HR plays a key role in ethics development in an organization because HR professionals come to intimately understand the needs, wants and problems employees may have with ethical subjects. In the second article, â€Å"How HR can facilitate ethics† the authors suggest again that HR professionals must play an important role in developing, maintaining and updating ethics programs. This article like the previous article supports adopting ethical systems within the organization. A key element of ethics programs defined by the authors is also communications. The authors suggest that HR plays three critical roles with respect to ethics including determining employee's loyalty, providing consistent information and assessing perceptions about ethical behaviors in an organization. Again the authors here make a valid point. HR is critical as the previous article mentions to the success of an organizational ethical program. I also believe that a solid ethics program will build loyalty but not just among employees. A company that has a reputable ethics program in place will also stand out among the competition. In an increasingly global marketplace it is vital that organizations take steps to ensure they conduct ethical business practices. Both of these articles are very relevant to the field of HRD. As companies continue to expand into an international marketplace, the media more and more is highlighting stories that feature unethical behavior. Such behavior tarnishes the reputation of companies and also harms employee's chances for advancement and personal success. It is vital that human resource professionals take an active role in developing ethical systems within the organization. HR professionals are trained not only in ethical management but also to work with employees to form a bridge between managers and employees. HR professionals can help open the lines of communication, survey current employees and mangers to determine potential problems areas, and work with multiple business units synergistically to ensure all company objectives are met in as ethical a manner as possible. It's not enough to simply â€Å"do† business. Companies that fail to uphold ethical standards will ultimately fail in the long term. It is important that companies not only remain competitive but take pride in ethical work practices. HRD teams should continually work to discover new and innovative techniques for building ethical work practices into organizational processes and procedures. Ethics is something that should be ingrained in the heart and soul of organizations.

The extensive records Essay

As technology continues to advance, computers are becoming more part of everyday life. Computers are everywhere at work, at school, and at home .Many daily activities either involve the use of or depend on information from a computer. This maybe because computers are used in almost every field and profession like education and office works to perform large number of computer application .It also the best solution for providing information and a way of communications in every individual and gives better understanding of some event s that can arouse the interest of some particular subject matter. The computerized world is a highly efficient one, which processing the big quantities of data and keeping .The extensive records will not be a problem to a post industrialized society, likewise the unreliable and slow processing and preparing student record and enrollment summary of report. At Mabitac National High School (MNHS) Mabitac, Laguna there are five hundred three students taking several year levels. The populations of the student in mentioned School are continued to grow which means also that an increase of records are handled by the Guidance Councilor. Clearly the manual system of enrollment and student record keeping are too much time consuming task. Computer can be considered as another instrument for developing a system like enrollment in every school. This can be a great help to those students, teachers and school who are handling many task from providing easier and faster access. The Problem and its Background Computer as part of the innovation in technology manifests bigger changes in world, economies, banks and other manufacturing centers flourished due to the catching power of computers in the field of education, not all school can afford to have numbers of computer to update the school manual system, which somehow caused a lot of inaccuracy and inefficiency in the data processing records, rules and regulations, profiles, and programs. The present system of Mabitac National High School is done manually such as the enrollment system, and record keeping. From the time it was started to operate, they use the manual system. Even nowadays, that they have computers, still they use it for proration of memos and letters. Mabitac National High School is a public School which is located at Brgy. Maligaya Mabitac, Laguna. And this School was started and established in the year 1970 known as Alas-as Brgy. High School. And it was found by Mrs. Lydia R. Carpio one of the famous people in Mabitac at that time .As the year fast this School became Mabitac National High School in the year 1987. Like some School, Mabitac National High School is using the old system, the manual system for enrollment. Theoretical Framework Theoretically, the main purpose of the system is to create an efficient, fast and reliable Computerized Enrollment and Permanent Record Keeping System of Mabitac National High School. A Database Management System (DBMS) consist of collection of interrelated and set of function to access the data. DBMS provides an environment that is both convenient and efficient to use in retrieving and storing information. It is also consist of programs for storing, retrieving and manipulating large amount of data. With DBMS software the user can compile huge list of data and manipulate, store and retrieve it without having touched single file cabinet of folder. Local Area Network (LAN) is a collection of interconnected computer that are separated by distance up to a few kilometers and typically used in office. Networking really helps establishment in a way of providing simultaneous process. Conceptual Framework In this study, the software that is being used DBMS and Visual Basic is window based programming language. It is the simplest and the easiest way to create an application in Microsoft Windows. Also this study is based and focuses not only on the process of enrollment in Mabitac National High school but also in other information about the school This is also aiming an effective means of processing information and retrieving data aside from being orderly used in almost all aspects in our daily lives. This Visual Basic and DBMS will serve as a powerful tool in keeping analyzing our records. And also this language is very effective, easy to use and friendly any one can adapt to this system. ProblemOutcomes/ Solution System Figure 1. The Conceptual paradigm of Computerized Enrollment and Permanent Record Keeping System of Mabitac National High School Statement of the Problem The present enrollment system of Mabitac National High School is done manually. Manually system of enrollment caused a lot of inaccuracy and efficiency in processing the record and data of the students. Too much time and effort are consumed and cannot give on time. Different Problems are as follows: 1. How to lessen the time of the students in paying their fees of Mabitac National iHHHHhhhH High School? 2. How the Mabitac National High School can manage an easy way of securing student record? 3. How to speed up the process of generating enrollment report in a short period of time? Significance of the Study The computers provide convenience to its user through the easier and faster way of transactions. Population of students in almost all-educational institution is rapidly increasing so great demand in teaching force is also becoming higher. Fortunately, today’s generation of high technology machine and tools can substitute these workers. This proposed â€Å"Computerized Enrollment and Permanent Record Keeping System of Mabitac National High School† will provide a high technology way of retrieving and managing student’s data. The study will be a great help to the following: Principal and Faculty Teachers. This study will help them to process records and keep the grades of students in a fastest and accurate way. It will help to keep and handle essential information of the students for the convenience of the students and the personnel assign to enrollment in this education institution. Students. The students can easily access and retrieval information regarding with the process of enrollment the effort and time and help to minimize the effort and time they exert. Mabitac National High School. It provides easy and fast approach in registration and enrollment. Scope and Limitation The study will be limited only to the boundaries of (Computerized Enrollment and Permanent Record Keeping System of Mabitac National High School). The researchers focused in getting relevant data including data of the students and computation of necessary fees, the system will able to print receipt and class list. It has an ability to save, record, and edit those data and important information about the students, teachers and school. The study covers the computerization of the activities, the enrollment system including student registration class list, principal’s report of total enrolment of students and receipt. Definition of Terms These terminologies were gathered by the researcher for better and clearer understanding about the study. Client. Does not share any of its resources that request a server’s content or service function. Computer. Machine capable of the following the instruction to alter data, programmable electronic device that can perform calculations and processing information. Database. Is a container to store your tables in. Enrollment. It is a process in which a student is being admitted to the institution. This includes the listing of information or data about the student and subject he/she will be enrolled. Information. Knowledge given or received of some fact or circumstances. Program. An algorithm that a computer can both follow directly and follow the translated version. Record. It is the collection of related field with information that usually pertains to only one subject. Server. A computer on a local area that is running software for controlling access to all or part of the network and its resources and shares its resources with client. System. It is a group of interrelated components working together toward a common goal by accepting input and producing output in an organized transformation process. Software. It is a system utility or application program expressed in complete readable language. User. The person who uses a computer for word processing, communications, and other application. User–Friendly. A program easy to use even though an individual is not knowledgeable about the system. Visual Basic 6.0. Scripting language or programming language that is used to design the system. CHAPTER 2 REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE The chapter states the different literature and studies that were conducted for the research to gain familiarity that are relevant and similar to the present study. Related Literature Tinn (2001) stated that the computerization responded to the call the office or any workplace to help their daily operation. Malolos et.al (2002) stated that the study of automation is important in the sense time that minimizes the time and effort normally exerted in manual process. Janes (2001) stated that computers are extremely reliable device and very powerful calculators with some great accessories applications like word processing problem for all of business activities, regardless of size, computers have three advantages over other type of office equipment that process information because computer are faster, more accurate more economical. Reyes (2005) task would be time consuming to accomplish manually and more practical with the aid of computers field in cabinet. According to Flores (2002), the automation is described simply as the substitution of machine control of human. Dioso (2001) stated that computer assist careful intelligent planning, organizing, actuating and controlling .This maybe observed from the past that they monitor production activities, solve scientific problem and help arrive in tentative answer to a multitude of involve conditions. Ralph M. Stair (1999) emphasized that the development of technology through the years have enabled us to do more with less effort. From the orientation of the light bulb to the industrial revolution and beyond, we have continuously tried to in a more efficient means of doing tasks. Lewis (2002) stated that the reason for using computers vary from person to person. Some of the computers in business are to perform accuracy, to be as productivity, to decrease bottle necks or hassles to alter cash flows or to simples elevate your status. Sybex Inc (1999) stated that visual basic provide a graphical environment in which the users usually designed the forms and control that become the building block of tour application . Visual Basic support many useful tools that will help the user more productivity. Gold Chager et al (2003) said that computer as a device for processing information knew computer plays a significant role in their lives, but few are aware of just how pervasive role is. Mane (2000) mentioned that the creation of the computer made the easier to accomplish that by doing it manually, to have the direct access on straightforward answer just monitoring record where in the needs of computer make possible for everyone to get data in a particular need. We can consider that the computer is necessary and its productive tool for individual. Gurewich (1999) stated that the database system makes the work faster for every institution. For the mere fact that instead of doing things manually, with the use of computer technology everything is done fasters. Halili, M.C.N. (2004) that man’s actions are t just involuntary movements especially when time allow to plan his next action. These responses pass through the process of reasoning and analysis. Huntchinson et.al (2001) stated that file is a collection of related records. Examples are the entire student’s courses card for Anthropology 101 or the transcript of all courses in the register’s office. Bryan (2006) emphasized the information system is a set of people, procedures and resources that collects, transforms and disseminates information in an organization to do’s ends rely on many types of information system (IS). They might include simple manual information system and informal system and also computer based information system that uses hardware, software telecommunication and other forms of information technology (IT). Sander (2002) computers are an intelligence amplifier that can free human to use their time effectively. Because a computer is a fast and accurate electronic symbol or data manipulating system that design automatically accept and store input data process and procedure output results under the direction of the stored program or instruction. Towsand (2005) stated that database is structed collection of data. The data may be about people, product events in short, any type of information is to manage the collection of data for reporting and making decision. Adamski(2007) give some advantages of database processing first economy of scale getting more information from some amount of data, sharing data balancing conflicting requirement, enforcement of standard, controlled redundancy consisting integrity security ,flexibility and responsiveness ,increase programmers productivity, improve program maintenance and data independence Perkins (1999) stated that computer has an impressive impact upon business, governmental organization; bank and all sorts of organization and on how they are operate and manage. Alcaria (2004) explained that the use of computer are continue to grow, the need for a more timely information and data processing comes on demand keeping the records of any manual operations need the application of computer because handling it manually will only be conflicting. Kroenke (2002) in the early 1970’s database processing was considered an esoteric subject of interest only to the longest corporation with the largest computer. Today, database processing is becoming an information system standard. Silberschatz (2006) in his book â€Å"Database System Concept† the goal of database system is to simplify and facilitate access to data. Ahitud et.al (2007) Mentioned that information system are more collection of hardware, software and people. They should be constructed to fit the organization’s strategy and structure so that it could easily be adapted to the information they needed. Asumbra (2002) Access to information is the best way to. In line with technology access to information within fingertips is the easier way to be equipped in the future. Hammer (2003) Said that computer could eliminate the need for copying and rearranging information, which was entered into system. They also perform mathematical computation; in short computer can eliminate most of the paper works. Microsoft Corporation (2002) Explained that computer network are collection of computer and intelligent peripheral equipment that are inter connected by telephone lines, micro wave relays and other high-speed communication links of the purpose of exchanging data and sharing equipment. Related Studies Conde (2007) in his study entitled â€Å"Network-bases Enrollment System of Paete National High School cited that the manual process of enrollment and manual handling of information and reports of the students is very laborious one. The proponents developed a network based system enrollment system to the said school to solve the huge amount of task. Garcia (2002) created the â€Å"LSPC Enrollment System†, the study can be a great help to persons concerned during the enrollment period, the registrar, instructor of the students as they retrieval necessary information when needed and lessen the burden manually browsing over enrollment slip for record purposes Saayo et.al (2008) developed the system â€Å"Network based automated Enrollment and grading system for Morong National High School. Due to increasing population of the institution, and the school currently implementing the manual system, every student spends a lot of time during enrollment period, such as paying their tuition fees a nd processing the school requirements. Valina et.al (2009) entitled â€Å"Network-based student Permanent Record keeping and Enrollment System of Balian National High School†. This System was made to lessen the time and effort exerted by both student and school employees. It is also made to give accurate reports and keep records of every students every students and for easy and fast way of enrollment. Soria et.al. (2006) constructed a system entitled â€Å"Network-based Computerized inventory System for the supply office o the LSPC main campus. With the advancement of technology, devices and machines were improve , developed and inverted to cope up with the need of new world. There are different systems designed for reliable, efficient and very useful to the user. Cabang et.al. (2003) developed the ‘computerized Students Record Monitoring System of Siniloan National High School†, Computerized Student data will be exceedingly helped to the user through continuous management of the School. It could help the registral for a less effort services in he institutions specially in updating, printing and deleting students record. Velasco (2002) Study entitled â€Å"Maulawin National High School Student Information System† cited that maintaining students, records manually is a very difficult task and time consuming. In that case, computerization system that can help and handle this data needed to speed up the process of student’s record keeping and to promote and reliability. Cura et.al. (2004) Designed system entitled â€Å"computerized inventory system of office of the supply in LSPU† is capable of handling voluminous data about the flow of item insurance and reply to the flow of items’ issuance and return in supply office Torres et.al. (2002) conducted a study that resolves around the importance computerization of student information. This study was conducted with the hope that it would help minimize time and effort in processing student’s information in Maulawin National High School. The basic feature of this study is after the storage and access of retrieving and updating the data. Alcaira (1999) Stated that the using of computer are continue to grow, the need for a more timely information and data processing comes on demand keeping the record of any manual operations need the application, because handling it manually will only be conflicting. Aravia et.al. (2002) Show the growing importance of computers in the society. The significance of the study revolves the automation of student permanent record keeping. Garnace (1999) Developed application software for the computerized information system of a commercial piggery using the concept of the database and implemented it in database. Gumitao (2001) System is designed to provide reports of the list of enrollment per school year, periodical grade of students, and list of new, old and transferees Revalla (2005) created an Automation Enrollment System for the computer Science Department of the Laguna College business and Arts. The study was conceived because of the need to update the current registration system of LCBA, which is done manually. Her study, was based on the special problem of Mr. Bonifacio E. Bacani, Jr. about â€Å"Student Record information System†. Kampitan (2000) developed an Enrollment System of Liceo De Victoria that is designed to keep the students records. This is used to provide an effective and faster of providing information of the student and also the accounting purposes’ Liceo De Victoria Enrollment was developed and implement using relational database and designed in clipper 5.3. Earlier, Encila (1999) Introduced the Enrollment System for the computer Science Department of LCBA and traders, designed of enrollment System is advantageous to the school because it speed up the process and with only a minimum amount of power and resources. Cacao (2002) designed the â€Å"Morning Star Montessori School incorporated form 137implemented in Fox Base. Solomon (2002) developed Enrollment and Record keeping System, to know how to read sign the data that is used to be kept the record files of students and also that, it could be mange more efficiently in computer with his project. Quiver (2001) developed a program using database III which capable of retrieving, access in manipulating of data in easy way. A computerized system to minimized the lost of record and burden of work was designed by Pajarillo in 2002. Monsalve and Ilagan (2005) developed a program and designed using Microsoft Visual Basic 6.0 and Microsoft access. The system is capable of receiving access, searching items, providing adequate information and data gathering. IPizzara and Veridiano (2001) this system was done using Microsoft Visual Basic 6.0. This conducted system goes along the trend of computerization to be in the field of competitiveness and survive to the complicated works. Relayo (1999) this study will assist the researcher regarding to the use of database and Visual Basic. This system have been designed in order to speed up the access and retrieval information and to lessen manual effort involve in the library routine of transaction. Magalang (2003) he proposed this to developed software that will help the management of the school â€Å"lyceum’ in giving good service to its student in speeding of the process involve in monitoring account acquired during the enrollment & other payment transaction. Lazaro (2004) this study entitled â€Å"Liceo de Los Banos record monitoring system† password was created for the protection and was designed to be user-friendly by only authorized persons and to ensure security of data basic information. Lumbers (2002) stated in her study entitled â€Å"a systematic enrollment process using database system in Saint John academy. Calamba, Laguna† that the application of database system to the enrollment process will greatly increase its efficiency; automation of enrollment process will upgrade the quality of the services provided for the qualified enrollees.

Love- Crime and Society Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2250 words

Love- Crime and Society - Essay Example Generally, crime is defined as the activity involving harm to the society. The dimensions of the crimes are widespread throughout the society (Albanese, 2002 ). There is no single explanation to why the rate of crimes is rising day by day and that why the books and institutions of justice have failed to address the opportunity and the facilitating factors of crimes with respect to the behavioral uplift of the individuals. Not only the areas with a low intensity of social and financial individuals are notorious but the high society members have also been originated to be occupied in at least some of the criminal activities if not all. In this paper, I will be highlighting the main issues in my selected areas of study followed by the steps taken to change or improve the unwanted outcomes. My study and explanations are based on the following thesis statement. â€Å"Biological and psychological factors positively correlate with the dimensions of crimes in a highly specialized environment and are directly proportional to the opportunities and factors facilitating the rates of these criminal activities.† Around the world, in many years that have passed, it has been observed that the rate of crimes is most commonly based upon the fact that the people inhabiting a certain area get influenced by the behaviors of their significant others. The definitional issues relating to the age, gender and race are widespread. Blue-collar crimes and that of juvenile crimes usually fall in the category of age dimension. These are the rational street crimes including the shoplifting, kidnapping, rape and vandalism. These crimes usually do not get a mature backup. Various studies indicate that there is more of the under-aged society members involved in such crimes as compared to bigger members (Flowers, 2003 ). Those kids who are involved in criminal activities because of any social reason, when caught and released with a minor punishment are most likely to go back into the same

Conceptual Theoretical Frameworks Dissertation Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Conceptual Theoretical Frameworks - Dissertation Example These factors can be broadly classified as curricular, institutional, political as well as economic, and social ones. Besides these listed factors, some of the factors that led to the increase in the number of nontraditional students are the existence of evening and weekend programs and even the existence of various courses that were taught in central locations and shopping malls. The political forces that emerged from the victory during the era of the World War II further facilitated the enrollment growth. The term nontraditional students refer to any learner in an institution of higher learning that hails from any part of the country that is from either urban or rural areas and the learner can be of any race and can be of any social state. According to Stewart and Rue (1983), nontraditional student can be defined as any learner who happens to be 25 years old or even more. However, this definition has been disputed by other authors and the reason for the dispute is the fact that the use of age is not satisfactory for the determination of the term nontraditional. Traditional students, on the other hand, can be referred to as learners that fall within an age bracket of 18 and 24 years and are attending college full time as well as residing in colleges. The difference between nontraditional and traditional students can, therefore, lie in the age, college attendance, and their residence. Structure of the Conceptual Model The conceptual model proposed by Bean and Metzner (1985) indicates that decisions involving dropouts basically rely on four variables, and these variables are background and defining variables, academic variables, environmental variables, and an intention to persist variable. Background and defining variables primarily concern various educational goals and the performance from high schools. Academic variables concern the performance, and the students with a low performance are expected to drop out of school at a higher rate compared to the student s with a higher performance. The third variable is environmental, and these variables are concerned with direct effects on the various decisions of dropping out of school (Tinto, 1975). Finally, the fourth variable is the intent to persist variable; and this variable is primarily affected by various psychological outcomes as well as various academic variables. The various variables are related through direct and indirect effects though the indirect effects can be easily calculated and testing of the resultant statistical significance brought about by these effects can be carried out. In the model, the various paths can be estimated using common convention that is capable of calculating both indirect and direct effects for each variable, which is independent, and the result is the greatest effect that is the sum of indirect and direct effects. A larger proportion of undergraduate student population is composed of commuter students, and the trends in the enrollment of these commuter s tudents are expected to increase because of the decrease in the number of the traditional age. The rate of attrition of nontraditional students is high, and commuter students generally take up the gaps left by these students. Community Retention Model According to Stahl and Pavel (1992), the community retention model had a lot of emphasis on two-year college nontraditional students, and the aspects of social integration were eliminated, and this elimination was due to the construct for two-year college nontraditional student decision persistence. The model has four variables, a

Capital Mortgage Insurance Corporation Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Capital Mortgage Insurance Corporation - Essay Example Corporate Transfer Services (CTS) is an organization dedicated to the relocation of corporate employees and the real estate functions that are associated with said transfers. The acquisition of this firm would represent a diversification of CMI into a field that would make them a more integrated real estate services company. Discussion Question #1: Prepare a negotiation strategy that can be utilized by Randall and Dolan. What is important for this section is that both Randall and Dolan have found sufficient background information on CTS. Whilst it may be the case that the employee relocation market is big (Estimated at 500,000 relocations annually) What is important to remember is that the company according to the case has â€Å"Barely even reached a break-even point† and that it is only through years of additional work of building up the business can CMI or CTS really recognize a profitable enterprise. Given the stature and experience of the CTS Board, it would seem foolish to take a ‘Hard’ or ‘Soft’ Stance on negotiation as these men (Specifically Elliott Burr) would probably not respond favorably to these strategies. As it is the case that CMI Does not want to pay the $600,000 over the book value of the business and a $400,000 over the book value was offered it is a case of trying to persuade the four CTS executives to meet CMI at a middle ground. As such a â€Å"Principled negotiation strategy† should be employed in which the four stages should be focused on identifying exactly the book value of the firm is, focus on how much CMI wants to build on CTS’ business model, identify that no matter what CTS will be getting a premium on their business and always focus the criteria on objective measures.

Democratic Peace Theory Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words

Democratic Peace Theory - Essay Example 5). In that context the democratic peace theory not only directly challenges the validity and efficacy of the alternate political systems, but also the existing accounts of international relations that lay emphasis on the concepts like the strategic common interests and balance of power machinations, while delving on the international relations between salient democratic powers (Newman & Rich 2004, p. 5). Democratic Peace Theory In a simplistic context, one could ascribe the democratic peace theory as a theory that upholds the fact that the democratic nations seldom engage in war with each other (Schraeder 2002, p. 17). There exist varied other terms aimed at explaining and grasping this theory like ‘inter-democracy non aggression hypothesis’ or ‘mutual democratic pacifism’. ... 17). The other hypothesis that is put forward in the support of the democratic peace theory is that the democratically elected leaders are conversant in resolving issues through negotiations, and hence they carry on with this attribute in their approach towards foreign relations (Schraeder 2002, p. 17). No wonder, there are many people who tend to deny or criticize the democratic peace theory. What is Democracy? To a great extent the validity and relevance of the democratic peace theory is dependent on as to how one tends to define or explain a democracy. Although there is no single paradigm that grasps a holistic definition of democracy, yet, experts have identified varied salient features that delineate an ideal democracy. On most important attribute of the democratic nations is that they do have a democratically elected constitutional form of government that is answerable to people. Besides, these constitutionally elected governments happen to be representative in their scope and nature, directly responsible to the public sentiments, beliefs and aspirations. A workable and pragmatic democracy is always subservient to the principle of the separation of powers, where the powers of the state are judiciously allocated between the varied pillars of democracy like the executive and the judiciary. All the worthwhile and true democracies do extend varied judicial and legal rights to their citizens, which are legally and ethically upheld by the constitution and the state. Last but not the least, democracies do believe in extending avenues for participation to varied sections and segments of the society. Hence, in the interest of practicality, while delving on the democratic peace theory; one does

Answer the question in essay form Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

Answer the question in form - Essay Example My patients would probably not be comfortable with me being a male as they generally were served by females previously. Females are known to be more caring than males and hence my patients would prefer a female nurse to manage them. To handle the role conflict, I would have to learn the profession more closely. I would have to work with females to learn their skills so I can manage my patients in the same effective manner. To further finish the role conflict, I would make my patients more comfortable with me by showing them my good management skills. Being a female boxer on the other hand would have similar problems. Boxing is a a profession stereotyped for males and not females. Females would generally be discriminated in boxing and I would hence face this discrimination. Women are believed to be physically weaker than men and hence boxing would be discouraged by everyone close to me. To handle this conflict I would have to go for proper training and show everyone that I am strong enough to handle this profession. This strength would thus help in diminishing the discrimination. Thus it can be analyzed that role conflict can be managed with appropriate skills and management and nowadays this is being done in many

Old, in the Way and Hard at Work Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Old, in the Way and Hard at Work - Essay Example As an example, he states that in Japanese society they will be paying 3% "of the gross domestic product by 2050" for pensions and health for their older citizens (Porter, 2004, par. 7). Another area that is upsetting to Porter is the fact that older workers are living longer so the workplace will need to make a space for them longer. This will also mean that they will have to add more money to pension funds to keep those workers who retire. 6. Since most people are living until they are 80 or 90 years old governments will have to prepare for this by keeping people in the workforce for a longer time and they will need to pay pensions longer than they did in the past. 7. This causes an economic strain on the countries in two ways. First because they do not have a way to pay these payments and secondly because they do not have replacements for the older workers because of low population growth. In my opinion, this is one of the most ridiculous articles that have ever been written in "The New York Times". Most countries have talked about how wonderful it is that people are able to work longer but currently they are the first ones who are let go in many situations. Because the United States is having an economic breakdown it seems easier for some companies to let older workers go in favor of younger people who will work for less. When you look at the article it seems that Porter is upset because people are living longer. It seems strange that people would want a population to grow quickly and that they would give incentives to make this happen. As an example, the fact that European companies are giving incentives for women who will have more babies. Porter points out that mayor of Laviano has created a "$10,000 Euros (about $12,000 today)" for women who will have more children seem difficult to believe. What woman would not become a baby factory for that kind of money? (Porter, par. 18). There was a time when the aging Baby Boomers were looked at

Moral Implication of Frankenstein Essay Example for Free

Moral Implication of Frankenstein Essay The message, merits, and moral implications of Mary Shelley’s Frankenstein have been long debated and discussed. Many recurring themes which are apt to surface in these conversations are those such as the woes of artificial creation and the â€Å"man is not God† argument. These themes have been so thoroughly explored and exploited that this essay could not possibly generate and original thought within the realms covered by these topics. In order to formulate something remotely fresh and at least relatively interesting, this essay seeks to shift the focus to the less explored dilemmas which Shelley may have purposely or subconsciously woven into the classic novel. The very fact that Mary Shelley is a woman casts the already remarkable tale in an entirely new light. To read it objectively is improbable, if not impossible, because stories like this are simply not written by women. As a matter of fact, there are some things—focusing on a thrilling plot for the sake of the thrill, centralizing characters like monsters and ghosts, prominently showcasing a male to male bond—that are seen from female authors so infrequently, the appearance of one or multiple aspects in a story would be a true shock. This is certainly not a knock against female authors! It is not at all an insult, actually. It is simply an analysis of the female niche in literature at a glance. The fact that Shelley annihilated this mold with Frankenstein is a testament to her creativity, uniqueness and skill, setting her apart from all authors, male or female, and elevating her to a position of respect and glory which spans generations and gender. When taking into account the female psychology, attempting to ascertain what a female would consciously or subconsciously attempt to prove with the novel is interesting. While several smaller points are made by Shelley in the text, the most important and overall message of the novel is this: no man or laboratory can replace the natural maternal nature of the human mother. The nurturing provided by a mother is the most necessary and vital experience of a child’s life and directly affects the person he becomes. While this process can be imitated with foster homes, day cares, orphanages and the like, only the direct bond between creator and creation will suffice to produce the best of outcomes. The first step is to show that Shelley intended for Victor to be viewed as a mother to his creation. The point that Victor is not a woman seems to enhance the idea that he is incapable of undertaking the tasks of a primary caregiver. Given Victor’s masculinity, she uses the characters to â€Å"experiment† with a creator-child relationship in the absence of the maternal nature of a woman. To do so she alludes to the strong parallels connecting the relationships. At the end of Volume 1, Victor’s thoughts turn to how he would â€Å"spend each vital drop of blood for [the family’s sake]† (Shelley 90). This quote is a reference to the womb and the â€Å"lifeblood† shared by a family. Each drop of blood circulating in a pregnant woman is shared by the fetus living within her as she literally creates the child in her womb. That blood is then shared by the next infant as mother and children grow together into a family united by this blood. Shelley is showing that just as Victor is bonded to his mother by blood, so too is he bonded with his Monster. This is not the first time Shelley portrays Victor as a motherly figure. In the description of the creation process, Shelley draws connections between it and a pregnancy many times. To begin with, the overall concept of the creation of an infant and the creation of a monster are nearly identical. Victor speaks of the â€Å"power placed within his hands† to â€Å"bestow animation† on â€Å"lifeless matter;† matter which will eventually become an incredible system with innumerable â€Å"intricacies of fibers, muscles, and veins† (Shelley 54). Is this not the same thing that can be said of a mother? For she, too, creates an intricate being from nothing with an â€Å"anxiety which almost amounts to agony† in the pains of pregnancy and labor (58). Having shown that Shelley intended for Victor to play the role of ‘mother’ in her analogy, focus will now shift to the ultimate point of the novel: The nurturing provided by a mother (Victor), is the most necessary and vital experience of a child’s life and directly affects the person he becomes. From the very beginning, Victor shirks the responsibility of nurture and literally runs from it. As the creature awakes he exclaims: â€Å"breathless horror and disgust filled my heart. Unable to endure the aspect of the being I had created; I rushed out of the room† (Shelley 58). The Monster then immediately assumes the role of infant in the relationship as Victor says, â€Å"His eyes were fixed on me. His jaws opened, and he muttered some inarticulate sounds, while a grin wrinkled his cheeks† (Shelley 59). In the normal human realm this situation would be met with a dozen tear-filled eyes seeking to hold and coddle the creation. Unfortunately for the Monster, no such treatment is offered by Victor. Frankenstein leaves the Monster to fend for himself. The horrible consequences of this lack of nurturing follow with intensity and frequency. This is proven by the rapidly building sense of confusion and loneliness within the monster. Feelings which are only multiplied by society’s general rejection of him. The Monster laments to Victor upon their reunion on these feelings, â€Å"no distinct ideas occupied my mind: all was confused. I felt light, and hunger and thirst, and darkness; innumerable sound rang in my ears and on all sides various scents saluted me† (Shelley 106). The Monster needed a person to provide some context for these sensations, he needed a nurturer to steer him through the difficult path of modern urban existence. He knew essentially nothing and suffered for it. The Monster recalls in a story to Victor his finding of huts, cottages and houses: â€Å"The whole village was roused; some fled, some attacked me, until, grievously bruised by stones and many other kinds of missile weapons, I escaped to the open country† (Shelley 109). Had Victor been there to guide and coach his creation through life as a mother does for her child, the Monster would have experienced exponentially less pain and suffering, if any at all. It was not just any instruction and care that the Monster desired. He yearned for the specific life-training that can only be offered by one’s creator. Although he learned language, work and more from the cottagers he observed, nothing could replace that which only Victor as the creator could offer. The Monster details this in conversation with Victor, â€Å"Of my creation and creator I was absolutely ignorant† he then complains of other calamities he faced before saying, â€Å"I cannot describe to you the agony that these reflections inflicted upon me: I tried to dispel them but sorrow only increased with knowledge† (Shelley 123). It was not the â€Å"knowledge† he desired—he was clearly receiving a more than satisfactory education from the cottage dwellers—it was the relationship with his creator that mattered most, from which the knowledge comes as a bi-product. To ask if Victor learns his lesson is not debatable. Shelley gives him a clear second chance to reevaluate his decision and he chooses correctly. The Monster asks, or more so, demands, point blank that Victor create him a counterpart: â€Å"You must create a female for me, with whom I can live in the interchange of those sympathies necessary for my being. This you alone can do; and I demand it of you as a right which you must not refuse to concede† (Shelley 147). Initially, Victor refuses, even under the threat of torture. Then, with the Monster’s convincing words and pleas for empathy, Victor agreed under the condition that the monster banish himself and his bride to South America. One night, however, in the midst of creating the second being, Victor suddenly came to the realization that the creation of a second female would not necessarily be for the better and â€Å"made a solemn vow in [his] own heart never to resume [his] labors† (Shelley 171). This resolution to not repeat his mistake shows that Victor recognized the error in his first creation. It is not the creation that was the problem. He obviously was more than capable of producing a counterpart for the first Monster, but realized that he could not provide the appropriate nurturing. He understood, finally, the main requirement of creation: the education and nurture of the creature to become what one intended for it to become, in other words, one has to finish the job. Just as with every human birth, one cannot just bring the creature into the world and let it fend for itself. Frankenstein saw the limitations he had as a creator and made the responsible decision to never repeat his mistake. While the original purpose of this essay was to elaborate on Shelley and the ideas she wrote about as a female, the themes of the novel are too universal to be pinned down as something only a female could create. Creation, it turns out, involves two parts: the first is the giving of life, and the second is the nurturing of life. As a female both of these are very prevalent, more so than with males, but this work shows that males are very responsible for creation. Maybe this entire book is a more than simple commentary on the need for males to step up into the second creation role to support their wives, or maybe it is just a good story about a monster and a man. Either way, Shelley produced a novel with incredibly far reaching themes which contains solid, undeniable arguments which were never touched by male authors, thus making Frankenstein one of the greatest novels of all time.

Civilizations arose Essay Example for Free

Civilizations arose Essay In letter from Birmingham Jail, King considers the question, How can you advocate breaking some laws and obeying others? what is his answer? what do you think of the distinctions he makes? be sure to support your position with evidence taken from your reading, your own experiences and/or your observation of others. By definition, laws must be followed. They are created as guidelines such that there would be peace and order. However, there are those people who do not support the laws; some because they do not know what they are, others because they are just naturally stubborn but there are also those who do not advocate them because they do not believe in what those laws stand for. One classic example of the last reason for disobedience to law can be manifested in Martin Luther King Jr’s Letter from Birmingham Jail. Here the question How can you advocate breaking some laws and obeying others? was asked, to this, he raised the idea of just and unjust laws. Genius as he was, he was able to present a clear explanation of what he meant by such concepts and I am more than impressed with his qualification, which made me agree about his interpretation of this delineation of laws. Indeed, it is justified not to advocate â€Å"unjust† laws because they are not completely binding, thus, are discriminatory over the minority. In the question asked above, King answered â€Å"The answer lies in the fact that there are two types of laws: just and unjust. I would be the first to advocate obeying just laws. One has not only a legal but a moral responsibility to obey just laws. Conversely, one has a moral responsibility to disobey unjust laws. I would agree with St. Augustine that an unjust law is no law at all. †Ã¢â‚¬  For someone to accept King’s argument, his idea of â€Å"just† and â€Å"unjust† laws must first be cleared out. In the said letter, He says â€Å"An unjust law is a code that numerical or power majority group compels a minority group to obey but does not make binding on itself. By the same token, a just law is a code that a majority compels a minority to follow and that it is willing to follow itself† (160). This was corollary to his arrest while doing protest against racial segregation. The protests and Kings confinement ask us about unjust laws, public morality, and ethical behaviors in the society. King talks about the blindness of clergymen and governors and how they do not see African American as a part of the society and their refusal to accept them when in fact, African Americans have taken their parts in the society ever since they came to America. The author questions the churchs authenticity and loyalty over their religious responsibility to guide everyone to the eternal will of God which is peace and love. He also points out how we naturally know what is right and what is wrong because we have moral consciousness. Yet, the American society has not changed a bit. Further distinction between â€Å"just† and â€Å"unjust† laws as presented by King lies on their relationship with the moral law, or that which is according to the law of God. Just laws made by men must be in harmony with eternal and natural laws and that they should be able to uplift human personality, otherwise, they are unjust. Thus, men are to uphold the earlier and by virtue of morality should denounce the latter. He then stressed that segregation statutes are unjust because the practice distorts the human soul and also causes damage to one’s personality. This is because it makes the segregator develop an idea of superiority over the segregated and oftentimes make the latter feel inferior. It creates a separation between â€Å"we† or the majority and â€Å"they† the minority and they usually make the second group feel less about their selves and are actually not treated as equals. This was the scenario that was taking place during that period, there were discriminations against the Negros, and such was strongly opposed by king. Taking all that has been said in the Letter, I am able to derive my own understanding of the just and unjust laws that King was talking about. In my comprehension, he considers a law unjust if it is selectively applicable. This means that a certain law can be bestowed to one but will rule out the other. In simple comparison, it is like politics inside the classroom. There is always this â€Å"in† (i. e. cheerleaders, athletes) group and the â€Å"outcast† (i. e. geeks, nerds, physically challenged, etc) and there are instances that the earlier will come up with something (like parties, games, etc) and they would allow everyone to join except for the â€Å"outcast† group basically because they are outcast and the status quo embraces such tradition thus will not see anything wrong about it. This may seem to be an oversimplification of the idea but that would somehow present the gist of it. The presence of what could be considered as unjust laws can actually still be seen at present. In Islam practicing countries, they have this culture of having certain rules to follow and distance to be maintained when interacting with Na-Mahram or those people other than the members of their family. Thus, if they reacted rudely to the Na-Mahram, their actions would be justified by this certain law or rule. They will be punished if they did wrong to people other than the Na-Mahram otherwise, their action is generally called for. In this scenario, the law or rule only applies to the favor of the Islam practitioner and excludes the Na-Mahram, thus if examined under King’s concept, it is unjust. Moreover, I have read about this country in Asia wherein the President has been ousted out of power and was convicted of a crime of plunder. Unjust application of the law can be seen here because that President did not serve his sentence in prison, rather in one of his mansions claiming to be sick; they called it house arrest. Then, after several years, he was granted absolute pardon by the new President. The worst thing about this is that the deposed President was again given the chance to run for the same government post came Election Day. There is an apparent double standard in the application of the law because of all the favors that this person got as if compared to the common people who had to serve their sentences in the scanty and stinky prison cells, convicted or otherwise. Civilizations arose as early as the practice of socialization began and as early as those times, men are already suffering from unfair treatments. There were different people in different places, but majority of them rather lived under the rules than by the rules because the rules were unethical and inequitable. The history of slavery in America is a good example of unethical conduct. There were rules and laws, but they were for superiors because enslaved people had no rights at all. Moreover, these rules, regulations, and laws were unfair and one-sided. The fight for the right of suffrage is yet another example because although it is a sign of independence, initially, only males of the upper class are allowed to participate. Blacks and women are disregarded; they were exemptions to the rule. Given the understanding of unjust laws, Martin Luther King Jr indeed cannot be blamed for being selective of the laws to follow because certain laws are also selective of their application. Why would one advocate a law that would disadvantage or would undermine him? Laws should be created to provide order and peace so that people will leave in harmony and not to perpetuate the power or dominance of the majority over the minority. All people have rights, thus all people must be equal in front of the law. No man shall be superior over the other and if one errs he shall have the same punishment as the others who committed the same crime. There should be no exemption to this no matter who they are or where they came from. Therefore, if one country, state or nation would want their laws to be advocated by all of their citizens, they must ensure that they create one body of law that would cater to everyone; no exemptions, special treatments or discrimination. Laws are virtuous if they are created and are applied as such; otherwise, disobedience by the marginalized groups could not be prevented nor could be questioned.

Effect of Single Parent Household on Child Education

Effect of Single Parent Household on Child Education ABSTRACT The question of whether different family structures affect the educational achievement of children is one that has been debated over a vast amount of years and is still under scrutiny today. This theoretical study aims to contribute to our understandings of the links between single parent family structures and the affect it has on adolescents education (12 17 year olds). It particularly gives emphasis to single parent families, however also considers other family structures, such as, families that consist of two parents, step families, etc, which enables comparison between the data and gives an illustration of the educational differences between single parent family households and other family structures. This comparison has facilitated an analysis on positive or negative effects single parent families can possess on education. Lastly the study assesses the data available between educational attainment of adolescents from single-mother families and adolescents form single-father fam ilies. Research data has been collated from secondary sourced materials about single parent family structures and education, which were mainly in the form of journal articles all written by credible authors over the past 15 years. These statues of the sources used that influence the establishment of knowledge and policy are highly credible, as they are acknowledged by the accredited organisations that have allowed the primary research to be conducted and the data published. An analytical review has been conducted on all the research data examined and enabled the following findings; although adolescents are at increased risk of adverse outcomes when living in a single parent family structure, the differences between adolescents from two parent and single parent families is fairly insignificant and adolescents will predominantly, not be affected in terms of educational achievement and occupational success. CHAPTER 1: RESEARCH PROCESS Prior to starting this study, a comprehensive and detailed research process around the area of interest on single parent families was undertaken, to provide the core foundations of the study. It was necessary to engage with a wide variety of secondary sourced materials, which needed an extensive and analytical review, in order to carry a successful theoretical study on the chosen title; A Critical Review: The Educational Performance of Adolescents from Single Parent Families. There was a vast amount of literature and different methods of conduct in the way the information needed could be obtained, therefore a search strategy was devised [Refer to Appendix 1 Research Journal Book; Page 5], which included a clear and logical plan to collating the necessary research data. The starting point for the research process was a search for relevant literature on the Manchester Metropolitan University library website. This enabled access to the basic electronic books, articles and on-line journals to provide the basic background reading around the topic under analysis. Later, a search for various journal articles that were not available on-line was carried out and copies were made of the relevant ones that could help with the study. Also, after conducting a library search on the books required, the ones that were unavailable were reserved for later, and once obtained, it was necessary to read them. Comprehensive notes were made of the issues acknowledged around single parenthood and the information perceived to be of high significance. Although, now a lot of background knowledge and data on the subject matter was established, it was noticed that the materials used were not very contemporary, as some of the books and articles were published over 30 years ago. T herefore it was essential to engage with various online articles, including, The Times and journal databases, such as Demos to allow an analysis of a wider range of contemporary materials on the topic of interest. After collating and examining all the research attained, the materials were synthesised to the most relevant ones that were produced over the past 15 years and those that were published by credited authors and organisations, to allow the study to hold validity. In addition, a timeline was created, which consisted of dates as to when certain tasks and research would be carried out, in order to ensure the research tasks and study was completed before the submission deadline. After the research process was complete, it was officially time to commence in a detailed critical analysis and evaluation on the role of single parent families and adolescents educational attainment. CHAPTER 2: INTRODUCTION Research Interest The nature of this research is to find out whether the educational performances of adolescents (12 17 year olds) living in single parent households is different (better or worse) to those adolescents living in other family structures. The area of research interest is based around single parent families, particularly in relation to education and how children growing up in one parent households can affect their educational attainment. The focus is specifically on adolescents, as it has been argued by some practitioners who have studied single parent families that; adolescence in particular is a crucial time in which to study school success because educational achievement in the teen years has a direct influence on indicators of overall attainment, such as high school graduation and college attendance (Heard, 2007; p.320). The curiosity for this subject matter has stemmed from an individual standpoint, through personal experiences of being raised in a single-mother household, and holding positive educational achievements, as average academic grades have always been met. However, there seemed to be negative expectations from people in society (teachers, extended family members, etc), who considered individuals from single parent households to be less intellectually capable and to perform less well in education than those children from stable two parent families. Hence, the nature of this study and the hoped outcome after the review of literature is; that adolescents are often stereotyped because of their family structure which may have no or little relevance to their educational performance. In the process of conducting the research required, a personal interest on this topic area has developed furthermore, because a lot of different and altering views on single parenthood were found, which were not considered at first. For example, different explanations were discovered on how a boys educational achievement is affected when he is living in a single-mother household, which can be significantly different to him living in a single-father household. As previously stated, the research was conducted by collating relevant research data on the topic area and reviewing each article and information in depth to allow a detailed analysis of the main contentious issues, which included; the notion that adolescents from single parent households perform less well in education than those living with two parents, single parent families have a lack of funds to invest in educational resources, boys are adversely affected than girls from single parent households, boys growing up without a father are more likely to do less well in education, same with girls without their mother, and, lastly, the idea that living in a single parent family consequences very little parental involvement in the adolescents education. After underlining the main contentious issues, a number of 3 questions were formulated to guide the study and allow a successful analysis and evaluation of the secondary research data. These comprised; are adolescents from single parent families at a disadvantage to those of two parents in educational achievement? Secondly, are there any similarities or differences of the educational performance of adolescents between single-mother and single-father households? Lastly, do single-parents have little involvement in their childrens educational attainment? Report Structure The structure of the report firstly consists of an abstract to give the reader an insight to the study and what it deals with. Chapter 1 consists of the research process undertaken to allow the analysis of the research data. The section outlines the necessary steps taken when collating the research materials and provides the reader with a notion of the type of primary research previously conducted on the topic of single parent families. Chapter 2 is the introductory chapter to clarify the nature of the research. It includes information about where the curiosity in this subject matter stemmed from, the main contentious issues discovered from the secondary source materials, the questions developed to guide the study and lastly, an overview of the main conclusion drawn. Chapter 3 compromise a critical analysis on reports identified that deal with research and statistics conducted by governmental bodies, including the Institute of Education. It evaluates the effectiveness of the secondary sourced materials used to complete the study and takes into account the strengths and weakness of the materials analysed; also indentifying the gaps within the topic area under scrutiny. The analysis on these reports allows the subject matter to be put into a contemporary context. Chapter 4 consists of an analysis and critique of academic literature conducted by various authors and publishers. This part identifies other issues, ideas and competing theories related to children from single parent households and enables further arguments to be constructed. It also analyses the sociological data collection and analysis methods used to obtain data to form the studies on single parent households. Chapter 5 deals with an examination of the previous sociological theories devised around single parent families and also the contemporary ones. This analysis allows an insight to theorists opinions and explanations of the differences in educational attainment. Chapter 6 includes the addition of a comprehensive conclusion, compromising a brief summary of the research and independent conclusions related to the study are offered. This section allows an understanding of personal arguments and ideas made to contribute towards the concepts of the study and competing theories or interpretations. It also consists of a section that outlines the future work and study that can be implemented to develop the study of single parent families. Chapter 7, the last section contains a personal reflection on the engagement of the research conducted. It includes how and what has been learnt throughout the course of the study, as well as, how personal interests have been impacted and changed as a result of the research process and the completion of the study. Main Conclusions The critical review has drawn together the evidence on adolescents educational attainment from single parent family households. There is evidence to show that although adolescents are at increased risk of adverse outcomes when living in a single parent family structure, the differences between adolescents from two parent families and single parent families is fairly insignificant and adolescents will predominantly not be affected in terms of educational achievement and occupational success. The analysis has also exposed that family functioning and economic factors have a higher influence than the type of family structure on an adolescents educational success. Furthermore, various sociological theories have been devised on the matter of single parent families, which can be used in context with the topic in hand. Lastly, research indicates, the lack of educational success of adolescents being brought up in single parent families is not limited to one cause only; a lot of altering factors play apart. CHAPTER 3: ANALYSIS OF REPORTS There are a number of reports published by governmental bodies, such as, the Institute of Education, that deal with research and statistics established around single parent families and education. This chapter compromises a critical analysis of 5 major reports published in the last 15 years, which are all acknowledged by governmental bodies. Causes of Single Parenthood Over the space of a single generation the number of people marrying has halved, the number divorcing has trebled and the proportion of children born outside marriage has quadrupled (Lewis, 2001; p.37). It can be suggested, that all of the above contribute to the factors related to the causes of single parenthood. The context of this statement has been assembled from data provided by the Department for Children Schools and Families (DCSF) from the 1970s to the year 2000. However Lewis (2001) fails to look at contemporary data and statistics around the subject matter, which could alter the statement he has made. National statistics actually declare that the number of marriages in England and Wales steadily rose between 2001 and 2004 (Office for National Statistics, 2010), therefore although the number of marriages may have halved over the space of a single generation (Lewis, 2001; p.37), Lewis (2001) does not look at the rise of marriages in certain periods and does not offer any rationalisation for such trends [Refer to Appendix 2 Statistics Graph; Page 48]. In 2006 in Great Britain, 25% of dependent children were found to be living in single parent households with little or no contact with the second parent (Mooney et al, 2009). This figure holds credible status as it was obtained from the National Office for Statistics, however Mooney et al (2009) are unsuccessful in explaining how little or no contact is determined. There is no thesis or evidence of chapters that attempt to make clear how they approached and justified their declaration made, therefore making it questionable. Lewis (2001), Mooney et al (2009), amongst others also offer alternative explanations to single parenthood that are recognised within the majority of the reports under analysis, which will be addressed throughout the course of this study. Effects of Single Parenthood The levels of single parenthood are continuously rising; the effect that this has on the adolescents living with a single parent is contested. Some argue there are no adverse consequences, whilst others suggest that there are clear implications for the adolescents, arguing; evidence indicates unequivocally that those children whose parents separate are at significantly greater risk than those whose parents remain together, for a wide range of adverse outcomes in social, psychological, and physical development (Pryor and Rodgers, 2001; p.73). These two positions offered are both backed up with evidence, firstly showing the consequences for adolescents, mainly pointing at the fact that there is a considerable difference in educational achievement between those individuals from single parent families and those from nuclear family structures[1]. This evidence is mainly shown through the comparison of statistical data; those who were brought up by single parents were almost twice as likely to lack formal qualifications (Kiernan, 1997; p.9). Again, the contradicting argument also uses similar procedures, such as statistical data to illustrate the evidence that argues individuals form single parent families are not negatively affected; the difference between children from intact and non-intact families is a small one, and the majority of children will not be adversely affected (Mooney et al, 2009; p.3). Although both of these grand claims provide evidence to back up their statements, they are not a 100 per cent warranted as gaps within their claims still remain. For example, Mooney et al (2009) acknowledge that there is a small difference between single parent and nuclear family structures and claim the majority of individuals from single parent families are not affected. However they fail to recognise the small proportion of individuals who are affected, forgetting to address the reasons to how and why only a minority of adolescents from single parent families suffer the alleged adverse consequences. Separation or Divorce It is argued that adolescents whose parents separate have the double probability of experiencing long-term negative outcomes in education than adolescents from nuclear family structures (Mooney et al, 2009). The long-term studies that have been conducted to show this include the analysis of statistical data throughout a certain period of time and longitudinal studies, monitoring adolescents from single parent households over a course of their lives. There is no specific definition of the long-term outcomes, and studies have taken place over a variety of periods, including, 5, 10 and 20 years. There is also no precise measurement of a negative outcome, they tend to be the general opinions of the researcher or author rather than a factor defined through research or study; there are various chapters throughout all the reports that constantly refer to the negative child outcomes following parental separation (Mooney et al, 2009; p.13), however there is no mentioning of the measurements u sed to define these negative outcomes. A variety of research studies have indicated that adolescents who witness the breakdown of their own parents marriage in comparison to those who have not, hold lower educational qualifications, lower part-time or full-time incomes and more expected to be unemployed in later life (Kiernan, 1997). This expectancy is reasonably vindicated as Kiernan (1997) uses various statistical data from England to compare the educational achievements and employment roles of adults aged 33 who had been raised by single parents to those who had not. From her study, she found that there were a lower percentage of adults who experienced their parents separation than those brought up in nuclear family structures to commit to further educational studies. Also, there was a higher percentage of adults brought up by single parents who were unemployed than those brought up by both parents (Kiernan, 1997). Although, she provides some statistical evidence to indicate those from single parent families possess lo w levels of educational attainment, Kiernan (1997) does not take into consideration the fact that her statistics show; there was a higher proportion of individuals brought up by single parents holding O-Level qualifications in comparison to those who lived in a nuclear family structure [Refer to Appendix 3 Table of Statistics; Page 49]. She fails to provide an explanation for this statistic and in a sense seems to ignore this odd occurrence. The ignorance of this statistic suggests Kiernan (1997) is judging and concluding in a manner that does not necessarily match the evidence, which may indicate towards a personal or professional agenda. This personal agenda may simply be stereotypical views of those from single parent families, which can include the expectancy of academic failure and low employment prospects. Also, teenage girls who have witnessed their parental divorce or separation have a higher probability than their peers to begin early sexual relations, to cohabit at early ages and commit to teenage pregnancies. To start early sexual relations and conceive children young is one reason why a vast percentage of adolescent girls from single parent families perform less well in education than those living in nuclear family structures. The stresses of sexual relationships and pregnancy can often leave very little or no time to focus on study, commonly resulting in teenage mothers leaving education early and gaining little qualifications (Kiernan, 1997). Although Kiernan (1997) makes such claims, she does not provide any evidence to justify them. There is no evidence of statistical data showing that teenage pregnancies are the result of being brought up by a single parent and no mention of any imperative measurements used to suggests such outcomes can occur; thus her explanations lack in v alidity and can be contested in numerous ways. Economical Factors One economical factor that is argued to be common in single parenthood is the issue of living in poverty. In comparison to nuclear families, single parents tend to be considerably financially worse and statistics show 70% of single parents live in poverty (Evans et al, 2004). This is an accredited statistic obtained from the Department of Work and Pensions, which gives an insight of the scale of financial difficulties faced by single parents. Poverty has been identified as one major factor that affects educational attainment at schools and used to explain the low educational performances of adolescents from single parent households, as a vast number of children living in single parent family structures are only supported by one parental income or through welfare benefits. In Britain in the 1990s, approximately 80% of single mothers relied on governmental benefits to support themselves and their children (Kiernan, 1997). Again, this statistic is credited and provides a sound context t o the argument being made, however it is not a contemporary piece of research. Today in modern Britain a lot of people are facing financial difficulties because of different factors that can affect educational attainment, regardless of the type of family structure an individual is from. For example, in the current financial climate and the issues of the recession, many people are finding it difficult to maintain jobs and fund their familys educational needs, such as, university tuition fees, college expenses, etc; therefore adolescents from all family structures may have a lower educational attainment. Consequently there are more individuals today relying on governmental benefits to support their financial needs; from the start of 2008, 800,000 individuals were claiming Job Seekers Allowance, then rose rapidly in 2009, where there was 1.5 million claimants (National Office for Statistics, 2010: Refer to Appendix 4 Statistics Article; Page 50). Thus, Kiernans (1997) examination on f inance does not give a valid insight to the contemporary issues affecting educational achievement. Also, Kiernan (1997) suggests that single parents do not have the financial support from the second parent without any suitable evidence. Conversely this is not necessarily true, if parents have separated or divorced, the second parent is obligated to contribute to the finance of his/her family if any dependent children are involved; therefore although some single parents may face financial strain, there are others who still receive financial help from their ex-partners. Financial difficulty increases the chances of other variables connected with negative outcomes for the adolescents, including; poor nutrition, inadequate housing, health issues and limited access to educational resources. Adolescents with poor nutrition will find it significantly difficult to concentrate at school during lessons, limiting their educational performances. Evidence shows a balanced diet and the consumption of adequate vitamins and nutrients can boost the concentration levels of pupils at school, making them more alert and attentive during class sessions (Welsh et all, 2004). This evidence offered is of widespread knowledge and supported by nutritional specialists, such as, the British Nutrition Foundation (Stanner et al, 2010). Poor nutrition can also lead to various long-term health problems, including Anorexia, Cardiovascular Disease, etc, which may require adolescents taking a lot of time off school compared to those not living in poverty, therefore, again, limiting their educational performances (Mooney et al, 2009). A viable argument is made here, however there is a lack of evidence to support the suggestion that these health problems is a definite explanation as to why adolescents from single parent families can do poorly in education. Health problems can lead to taking time off school, however there is no reasonable clarification to why it specifically affects those from single parent families; Anorexia and Cardiovascular Disease can affect any individual, not just those who lack a balanced diet and may be living in single parent families; the causes of Anorexia range from a variety of factors, including, the media, social pressure and genetics (Russell, 2007). Inadequate housing conditions may make it difficult for adolescents to concentrate and complete coursework at home when required, resulting in another limitation in educational attainment (Mooney et al, 2009). Another viable argument, however, again, there is a lack of evidence to support this claim; it is not sufficient enough to suggest inadequate housing only affects those of single parent families, move valid knowledge and research is required to support such claims. Furthermore, it is contested; limited funds can often neglect the extra requirements of educational resources and materials to help during courses. For example, single parents may not be able to afford home computers, books, sportswear, etc that assist success in schools. Without the access to these resources adolescents from single parents are at a disadvantage in educational attainment compared to those adolescents living in nuclear families, supported by both parental incomes, thus an explanation for the questionable differences in educational achievement (Mooney et al, 2009). Although this is an explanation, Mooney et al (2009) fail to acknowledge the initiatives and support available for all family structures to overcome barriers when accessing educational resources. For example, public libraries are available to borrow books instead of buying them, libraries also facilitate free access to computers and schools also provide support free access to educational materials. Therefore the claim that adolescents from single parents do not have the access to resources available in order to perform well in education is not credible and lacks knowledge of contemporary support. In addition, it is also argued, adolescents living with single parents may leave education early to gain employment to help with the financial circumstances, or work long shifts whilst still at school to fund their own wants and needs, which can ultimately result in low educational attainment. Low qualifications and an early entry into employment can increase the prospects of low occupational achievement, little income, unemployment and state dependency (Kiernan, 1997). This argument is supported with evidence, as Kiernan (1997) uses statistical data to show that a lot of adolescents form single parent families do enter early employment to assist their familys financial needs. However, she has no evidence to suggest that an early entry into employment can increase the chances of low occupational achievement, this is an assumption made, that without further education individuals cannot succeed in the labour market. However this is not necessarily accurate, there are individuals in the media who have excelled within the labour market without an education to college or degree level, for example, Sir Allen Sugar, a successful business entrepreneur (BBC, 2009). Although there is a certain lack of acknowledgement of various factors when arguing poverty is a major factor of adolescents academic failure from single parent families, there has been a study conducted of 2 nuclear families in America who experienced a substantial decrease in income. This identified that the financial pressure lead to increased depression in both parents, conflicts throughout the family, behaviour changes in the adolescents and a drop in their educational success in schools and in exams. (Conger et al, 1992). Therefore, there is some valid evidence to associate single parent poverty with educational success. Never the less, consideration must be given to the fact that educational failure in single parenthood is not only limited to financial strain. Social Factors The single parent family structure is frequently associated with social factors, such as a decrease in the quality and quantity of personal contact between adolescents and their non-residential parent. This can affect a teenagers educational attainment due to the lack of support from both parents to perform well in school (Kiernan, 1997). Although this statement is made, there is no substantial evidence or research conducted to support the argument. There is the assumption that teenagers will automatically have a decrease in the quality and quantity of personal contact with their second parent. However, this is may not be the case, parents after separation can still have daily contact with their children on a regular basis; thus the support from both parents to do well in education may not decline. Misleading conclusions are being made, which suggest the author may hold biased views on this subject matter. It can be argued, single parents providing childcare may also have limited time and energy they can dedicate to their children, particularly if longer hours of paid employment is necessary to maintain financial stability. These decreases in parental resources, for example, help with homework, support and attention they can offer to their children, can increase the possibility of educational failure (Kiernan, 1997). Although the long working hours may have an impact on parental time available, there is no verification that declares a lack of parental time has a definite effect on educational attainment. Kiernan (1997) also ignores social networks that can provide support with educational attainment, such as, family, friends, neighbours, relatives, etc. It has been argued by many that social networks and support is crucial for the development of individuals intellectually, emotionally and socially; strong networks allow the foundations to achieving success in academic and occupational careers (Hooyman and Kiak, 2008). Psychological Factors Amongst these social and economical explanations are psychological explanatory factors that attempt to clarify the educational differences between teenagers from single parent and nuclear family structures. It is argued that the notion of family stress during bereavement, divorce, separation, etc, can provide a vast amount of strain on the children, which can add onto the predominant stresses of educational attainment. A number of studies have exposed that parental conflict during separation can have a harmful impact on the adolescents well-being. This can result to lack of concentration during school class sessions, less motivation to complete designated assignments and a lack of class participation, which usually lead to academic failure (Kiernan, 1997). There is substantial evidence to suggest stress can be related to educational achievement and affect academic results obtained; for instance there have been various observational and longitudinal studies that have discovered trauma tic stress can lead to a decline in academic success (Hall, 2000). Whilst Kiernan (1997) takes into consideration the stresses of parental separation, she fails to acknowledge the relief some marital breakdowns can have; for example, one where the child or partner was suffering physical abuse. In this situation a positive outcome could occur in educational attainment rather than the negativities of academic failure. Also research suggests that the parental ability to recover from distress of bereavement, separation and divorce can affect the childrens ability to adapt to new changes. Effective communication and frequent contact between the adolescents and both the resident and non-resident parents are important in assisting teenagers to adjust and adapt to change. If change is not accepted and the adolescents do not adapt, studies have discovered that there is a higher possibility of poor educational outcomes for teenagers from separated families than those from intact ones. The distress teenagers may face fro Effect of Single Parent Household on Child Education Effect of Single Parent Household on Child Education ABSTRACT The question of whether different family structures affect the educational achievement of children is one that has been debated over a vast amount of years and is still under scrutiny today. This theoretical study aims to contribute to our understandings of the links between single parent family structures and the affect it has on adolescents education (12 17 year olds). It particularly gives emphasis to single parent families, however also considers other family structures, such as, families that consist of two parents, step families, etc, which enables comparison between the data and gives an illustration of the educational differences between single parent family households and other family structures. This comparison has facilitated an analysis on positive or negative effects single parent families can possess on education. Lastly the study assesses the data available between educational attainment of adolescents from single-mother families and adolescents form single-father fam ilies. Research data has been collated from secondary sourced materials about single parent family structures and education, which were mainly in the form of journal articles all written by credible authors over the past 15 years. These statues of the sources used that influence the establishment of knowledge and policy are highly credible, as they are acknowledged by the accredited organisations that have allowed the primary research to be conducted and the data published. An analytical review has been conducted on all the research data examined and enabled the following findings; although adolescents are at increased risk of adverse outcomes when living in a single parent family structure, the differences between adolescents from two parent and single parent families is fairly insignificant and adolescents will predominantly, not be affected in terms of educational achievement and occupational success. CHAPTER 1: RESEARCH PROCESS Prior to starting this study, a comprehensive and detailed research process around the area of interest on single parent families was undertaken, to provide the core foundations of the study. It was necessary to engage with a wide variety of secondary sourced materials, which needed an extensive and analytical review, in order to carry a successful theoretical study on the chosen title; A Critical Review: The Educational Performance of Adolescents from Single Parent Families. There was a vast amount of literature and different methods of conduct in the way the information needed could be obtained, therefore a search strategy was devised [Refer to Appendix 1 Research Journal Book; Page 5], which included a clear and logical plan to collating the necessary research data. The starting point for the research process was a search for relevant literature on the Manchester Metropolitan University library website. This enabled access to the basic electronic books, articles and on-line journals to provide the basic background reading around the topic under analysis. Later, a search for various journal articles that were not available on-line was carried out and copies were made of the relevant ones that could help with the study. Also, after conducting a library search on the books required, the ones that were unavailable were reserved for later, and once obtained, it was necessary to read them. Comprehensive notes were made of the issues acknowledged around single parenthood and the information perceived to be of high significance. Although, now a lot of background knowledge and data on the subject matter was established, it was noticed that the materials used were not very contemporary, as some of the books and articles were published over 30 years ago. T herefore it was essential to engage with various online articles, including, The Times and journal databases, such as Demos to allow an analysis of a wider range of contemporary materials on the topic of interest. After collating and examining all the research attained, the materials were synthesised to the most relevant ones that were produced over the past 15 years and those that were published by credited authors and organisations, to allow the study to hold validity. In addition, a timeline was created, which consisted of dates as to when certain tasks and research would be carried out, in order to ensure the research tasks and study was completed before the submission deadline. After the research process was complete, it was officially time to commence in a detailed critical analysis and evaluation on the role of single parent families and adolescents educational attainment. CHAPTER 2: INTRODUCTION Research Interest The nature of this research is to find out whether the educational performances of adolescents (12 17 year olds) living in single parent households is different (better or worse) to those adolescents living in other family structures. The area of research interest is based around single parent families, particularly in relation to education and how children growing up in one parent households can affect their educational attainment. The focus is specifically on adolescents, as it has been argued by some practitioners who have studied single parent families that; adolescence in particular is a crucial time in which to study school success because educational achievement in the teen years has a direct influence on indicators of overall attainment, such as high school graduation and college attendance (Heard, 2007; p.320). The curiosity for this subject matter has stemmed from an individual standpoint, through personal experiences of being raised in a single-mother household, and holding positive educational achievements, as average academic grades have always been met. However, there seemed to be negative expectations from people in society (teachers, extended family members, etc), who considered individuals from single parent households to be less intellectually capable and to perform less well in education than those children from stable two parent families. Hence, the nature of this study and the hoped outcome after the review of literature is; that adolescents are often stereotyped because of their family structure which may have no or little relevance to their educational performance. In the process of conducting the research required, a personal interest on this topic area has developed furthermore, because a lot of different and altering views on single parenthood were found, which were not considered at first. For example, different explanations were discovered on how a boys educational achievement is affected when he is living in a single-mother household, which can be significantly different to him living in a single-father household. As previously stated, the research was conducted by collating relevant research data on the topic area and reviewing each article and information in depth to allow a detailed analysis of the main contentious issues, which included; the notion that adolescents from single parent households perform less well in education than those living with two parents, single parent families have a lack of funds to invest in educational resources, boys are adversely affected than girls from single parent households, boys growing up without a father are more likely to do less well in education, same with girls without their mother, and, lastly, the idea that living in a single parent family consequences very little parental involvement in the adolescents education. After underlining the main contentious issues, a number of 3 questions were formulated to guide the study and allow a successful analysis and evaluation of the secondary research data. These comprised; are adolescents from single parent families at a disadvantage to those of two parents in educational achievement? Secondly, are there any similarities or differences of the educational performance of adolescents between single-mother and single-father households? Lastly, do single-parents have little involvement in their childrens educational attainment? Report Structure The structure of the report firstly consists of an abstract to give the reader an insight to the study and what it deals with. Chapter 1 consists of the research process undertaken to allow the analysis of the research data. The section outlines the necessary steps taken when collating the research materials and provides the reader with a notion of the type of primary research previously conducted on the topic of single parent families. Chapter 2 is the introductory chapter to clarify the nature of the research. It includes information about where the curiosity in this subject matter stemmed from, the main contentious issues discovered from the secondary source materials, the questions developed to guide the study and lastly, an overview of the main conclusion drawn. Chapter 3 compromise a critical analysis on reports identified that deal with research and statistics conducted by governmental bodies, including the Institute of Education. It evaluates the effectiveness of the secondary sourced materials used to complete the study and takes into account the strengths and weakness of the materials analysed; also indentifying the gaps within the topic area under scrutiny. The analysis on these reports allows the subject matter to be put into a contemporary context. Chapter 4 consists of an analysis and critique of academic literature conducted by various authors and publishers. This part identifies other issues, ideas and competing theories related to children from single parent households and enables further arguments to be constructed. It also analyses the sociological data collection and analysis methods used to obtain data to form the studies on single parent households. Chapter 5 deals with an examination of the previous sociological theories devised around single parent families and also the contemporary ones. This analysis allows an insight to theorists opinions and explanations of the differences in educational attainment. Chapter 6 includes the addition of a comprehensive conclusion, compromising a brief summary of the research and independent conclusions related to the study are offered. This section allows an understanding of personal arguments and ideas made to contribute towards the concepts of the study and competing theories or interpretations. It also consists of a section that outlines the future work and study that can be implemented to develop the study of single parent families. Chapter 7, the last section contains a personal reflection on the engagement of the research conducted. It includes how and what has been learnt throughout the course of the study, as well as, how personal interests have been impacted and changed as a result of the research process and the completion of the study. Main Conclusions The critical review has drawn together the evidence on adolescents educational attainment from single parent family households. There is evidence to show that although adolescents are at increased risk of adverse outcomes when living in a single parent family structure, the differences between adolescents from two parent families and single parent families is fairly insignificant and adolescents will predominantly not be affected in terms of educational achievement and occupational success. The analysis has also exposed that family functioning and economic factors have a higher influence than the type of family structure on an adolescents educational success. Furthermore, various sociological theories have been devised on the matter of single parent families, which can be used in context with the topic in hand. Lastly, research indicates, the lack of educational success of adolescents being brought up in single parent families is not limited to one cause only; a lot of altering factors play apart. CHAPTER 3: ANALYSIS OF REPORTS There are a number of reports published by governmental bodies, such as, the Institute of Education, that deal with research and statistics established around single parent families and education. This chapter compromises a critical analysis of 5 major reports published in the last 15 years, which are all acknowledged by governmental bodies. Causes of Single Parenthood Over the space of a single generation the number of people marrying has halved, the number divorcing has trebled and the proportion of children born outside marriage has quadrupled (Lewis, 2001; p.37). It can be suggested, that all of the above contribute to the factors related to the causes of single parenthood. The context of this statement has been assembled from data provided by the Department for Children Schools and Families (DCSF) from the 1970s to the year 2000. However Lewis (2001) fails to look at contemporary data and statistics around the subject matter, which could alter the statement he has made. National statistics actually declare that the number of marriages in England and Wales steadily rose between 2001 and 2004 (Office for National Statistics, 2010), therefore although the number of marriages may have halved over the space of a single generation (Lewis, 2001; p.37), Lewis (2001) does not look at the rise of marriages in certain periods and does not offer any rationalisation for such trends [Refer to Appendix 2 Statistics Graph; Page 48]. In 2006 in Great Britain, 25% of dependent children were found to be living in single parent households with little or no contact with the second parent (Mooney et al, 2009). This figure holds credible status as it was obtained from the National Office for Statistics, however Mooney et al (2009) are unsuccessful in explaining how little or no contact is determined. There is no thesis or evidence of chapters that attempt to make clear how they approached and justified their declaration made, therefore making it questionable. Lewis (2001), Mooney et al (2009), amongst others also offer alternative explanations to single parenthood that are recognised within the majority of the reports under analysis, which will be addressed throughout the course of this study. Effects of Single Parenthood The levels of single parenthood are continuously rising; the effect that this has on the adolescents living with a single parent is contested. Some argue there are no adverse consequences, whilst others suggest that there are clear implications for the adolescents, arguing; evidence indicates unequivocally that those children whose parents separate are at significantly greater risk than those whose parents remain together, for a wide range of adverse outcomes in social, psychological, and physical development (Pryor and Rodgers, 2001; p.73). These two positions offered are both backed up with evidence, firstly showing the consequences for adolescents, mainly pointing at the fact that there is a considerable difference in educational achievement between those individuals from single parent families and those from nuclear family structures[1]. This evidence is mainly shown through the comparison of statistical data; those who were brought up by single parents were almost twice as likely to lack formal qualifications (Kiernan, 1997; p.9). Again, the contradicting argument also uses similar procedures, such as statistical data to illustrate the evidence that argues individuals form single parent families are not negatively affected; the difference between children from intact and non-intact families is a small one, and the majority of children will not be adversely affected (Mooney et al, 2009; p.3). Although both of these grand claims provide evidence to back up their statements, they are not a 100 per cent warranted as gaps within their claims still remain. For example, Mooney et al (2009) acknowledge that there is a small difference between single parent and nuclear family structures and claim the majority of individuals from single parent families are not affected. However they fail to recognise the small proportion of individuals who are affected, forgetting to address the reasons to how and why only a minority of adolescents from single parent families suffer the alleged adverse consequences. Separation or Divorce It is argued that adolescents whose parents separate have the double probability of experiencing long-term negative outcomes in education than adolescents from nuclear family structures (Mooney et al, 2009). The long-term studies that have been conducted to show this include the analysis of statistical data throughout a certain period of time and longitudinal studies, monitoring adolescents from single parent households over a course of their lives. There is no specific definition of the long-term outcomes, and studies have taken place over a variety of periods, including, 5, 10 and 20 years. There is also no precise measurement of a negative outcome, they tend to be the general opinions of the researcher or author rather than a factor defined through research or study; there are various chapters throughout all the reports that constantly refer to the negative child outcomes following parental separation (Mooney et al, 2009; p.13), however there is no mentioning of the measurements u sed to define these negative outcomes. A variety of research studies have indicated that adolescents who witness the breakdown of their own parents marriage in comparison to those who have not, hold lower educational qualifications, lower part-time or full-time incomes and more expected to be unemployed in later life (Kiernan, 1997). This expectancy is reasonably vindicated as Kiernan (1997) uses various statistical data from England to compare the educational achievements and employment roles of adults aged 33 who had been raised by single parents to those who had not. From her study, she found that there were a lower percentage of adults who experienced their parents separation than those brought up in nuclear family structures to commit to further educational studies. Also, there was a higher percentage of adults brought up by single parents who were unemployed than those brought up by both parents (Kiernan, 1997). Although, she provides some statistical evidence to indicate those from single parent families possess lo w levels of educational attainment, Kiernan (1997) does not take into consideration the fact that her statistics show; there was a higher proportion of individuals brought up by single parents holding O-Level qualifications in comparison to those who lived in a nuclear family structure [Refer to Appendix 3 Table of Statistics; Page 49]. She fails to provide an explanation for this statistic and in a sense seems to ignore this odd occurrence. The ignorance of this statistic suggests Kiernan (1997) is judging and concluding in a manner that does not necessarily match the evidence, which may indicate towards a personal or professional agenda. This personal agenda may simply be stereotypical views of those from single parent families, which can include the expectancy of academic failure and low employment prospects. Also, teenage girls who have witnessed their parental divorce or separation have a higher probability than their peers to begin early sexual relations, to cohabit at early ages and commit to teenage pregnancies. To start early sexual relations and conceive children young is one reason why a vast percentage of adolescent girls from single parent families perform less well in education than those living in nuclear family structures. The stresses of sexual relationships and pregnancy can often leave very little or no time to focus on study, commonly resulting in teenage mothers leaving education early and gaining little qualifications (Kiernan, 1997). Although Kiernan (1997) makes such claims, she does not provide any evidence to justify them. There is no evidence of statistical data showing that teenage pregnancies are the result of being brought up by a single parent and no mention of any imperative measurements used to suggests such outcomes can occur; thus her explanations lack in v alidity and can be contested in numerous ways. Economical Factors One economical factor that is argued to be common in single parenthood is the issue of living in poverty. In comparison to nuclear families, single parents tend to be considerably financially worse and statistics show 70% of single parents live in poverty (Evans et al, 2004). This is an accredited statistic obtained from the Department of Work and Pensions, which gives an insight of the scale of financial difficulties faced by single parents. Poverty has been identified as one major factor that affects educational attainment at schools and used to explain the low educational performances of adolescents from single parent households, as a vast number of children living in single parent family structures are only supported by one parental income or through welfare benefits. In Britain in the 1990s, approximately 80% of single mothers relied on governmental benefits to support themselves and their children (Kiernan, 1997). Again, this statistic is credited and provides a sound context t o the argument being made, however it is not a contemporary piece of research. Today in modern Britain a lot of people are facing financial difficulties because of different factors that can affect educational attainment, regardless of the type of family structure an individual is from. For example, in the current financial climate and the issues of the recession, many people are finding it difficult to maintain jobs and fund their familys educational needs, such as, university tuition fees, college expenses, etc; therefore adolescents from all family structures may have a lower educational attainment. Consequently there are more individuals today relying on governmental benefits to support their financial needs; from the start of 2008, 800,000 individuals were claiming Job Seekers Allowance, then rose rapidly in 2009, where there was 1.5 million claimants (National Office for Statistics, 2010: Refer to Appendix 4 Statistics Article; Page 50). Thus, Kiernans (1997) examination on f inance does not give a valid insight to the contemporary issues affecting educational achievement. Also, Kiernan (1997) suggests that single parents do not have the financial support from the second parent without any suitable evidence. Conversely this is not necessarily true, if parents have separated or divorced, the second parent is obligated to contribute to the finance of his/her family if any dependent children are involved; therefore although some single parents may face financial strain, there are others who still receive financial help from their ex-partners. Financial difficulty increases the chances of other variables connected with negative outcomes for the adolescents, including; poor nutrition, inadequate housing, health issues and limited access to educational resources. Adolescents with poor nutrition will find it significantly difficult to concentrate at school during lessons, limiting their educational performances. Evidence shows a balanced diet and the consumption of adequate vitamins and nutrients can boost the concentration levels of pupils at school, making them more alert and attentive during class sessions (Welsh et all, 2004). This evidence offered is of widespread knowledge and supported by nutritional specialists, such as, the British Nutrition Foundation (Stanner et al, 2010). Poor nutrition can also lead to various long-term health problems, including Anorexia, Cardiovascular Disease, etc, which may require adolescents taking a lot of time off school compared to those not living in poverty, therefore, again, limiting their educational performances (Mooney et al, 2009). A viable argument is made here, however there is a lack of evidence to support the suggestion that these health problems is a definite explanation as to why adolescents from single parent families can do poorly in education. Health problems can lead to taking time off school, however there is no reasonable clarification to why it specifically affects those from single parent families; Anorexia and Cardiovascular Disease can affect any individual, not just those who lack a balanced diet and may be living in single parent families; the causes of Anorexia range from a variety of factors, including, the media, social pressure and genetics (Russell, 2007). Inadequate housing conditions may make it difficult for adolescents to concentrate and complete coursework at home when required, resulting in another limitation in educational attainment (Mooney et al, 2009). Another viable argument, however, again, there is a lack of evidence to support this claim; it is not sufficient enough to suggest inadequate housing only affects those of single parent families, move valid knowledge and research is required to support such claims. Furthermore, it is contested; limited funds can often neglect the extra requirements of educational resources and materials to help during courses. For example, single parents may not be able to afford home computers, books, sportswear, etc that assist success in schools. Without the access to these resources adolescents from single parents are at a disadvantage in educational attainment compared to those adolescents living in nuclear families, supported by both parental incomes, thus an explanation for the questionable differences in educational achievement (Mooney et al, 2009). Although this is an explanation, Mooney et al (2009) fail to acknowledge the initiatives and support available for all family structures to overcome barriers when accessing educational resources. For example, public libraries are available to borrow books instead of buying them, libraries also facilitate free access to computers and schools also provide support free access to educational materials. Therefore the claim that adolescents from single parents do not have the access to resources available in order to perform well in education is not credible and lacks knowledge of contemporary support. In addition, it is also argued, adolescents living with single parents may leave education early to gain employment to help with the financial circumstances, or work long shifts whilst still at school to fund their own wants and needs, which can ultimately result in low educational attainment. Low qualifications and an early entry into employment can increase the prospects of low occupational achievement, little income, unemployment and state dependency (Kiernan, 1997). This argument is supported with evidence, as Kiernan (1997) uses statistical data to show that a lot of adolescents form single parent families do enter early employment to assist their familys financial needs. However, she has no evidence to suggest that an early entry into employment can increase the chances of low occupational achievement, this is an assumption made, that without further education individuals cannot succeed in the labour market. However this is not necessarily accurate, there are individuals in the media who have excelled within the labour market without an education to college or degree level, for example, Sir Allen Sugar, a successful business entrepreneur (BBC, 2009). Although there is a certain lack of acknowledgement of various factors when arguing poverty is a major factor of adolescents academic failure from single parent families, there has been a study conducted of 2 nuclear families in America who experienced a substantial decrease in income. This identified that the financial pressure lead to increased depression in both parents, conflicts throughout the family, behaviour changes in the adolescents and a drop in their educational success in schools and in exams. (Conger et al, 1992). Therefore, there is some valid evidence to associate single parent poverty with educational success. Never the less, consideration must be given to the fact that educational failure in single parenthood is not only limited to financial strain. Social Factors The single parent family structure is frequently associated with social factors, such as a decrease in the quality and quantity of personal contact between adolescents and their non-residential parent. This can affect a teenagers educational attainment due to the lack of support from both parents to perform well in school (Kiernan, 1997). Although this statement is made, there is no substantial evidence or research conducted to support the argument. There is the assumption that teenagers will automatically have a decrease in the quality and quantity of personal contact with their second parent. However, this is may not be the case, parents after separation can still have daily contact with their children on a regular basis; thus the support from both parents to do well in education may not decline. Misleading conclusions are being made, which suggest the author may hold biased views on this subject matter. It can be argued, single parents providing childcare may also have limited time and energy they can dedicate to their children, particularly if longer hours of paid employment is necessary to maintain financial stability. These decreases in parental resources, for example, help with homework, support and attention they can offer to their children, can increase the possibility of educational failure (Kiernan, 1997). Although the long working hours may have an impact on parental time available, there is no verification that declares a lack of parental time has a definite effect on educational attainment. Kiernan (1997) also ignores social networks that can provide support with educational attainment, such as, family, friends, neighbours, relatives, etc. It has been argued by many that social networks and support is crucial for the development of individuals intellectually, emotionally and socially; strong networks allow the foundations to achieving success in academic and occupational careers (Hooyman and Kiak, 2008). Psychological Factors Amongst these social and economical explanations are psychological explanatory factors that attempt to clarify the educational differences between teenagers from single parent and nuclear family structures. It is argued that the notion of family stress during bereavement, divorce, separation, etc, can provide a vast amount of strain on the children, which can add onto the predominant stresses of educational attainment. A number of studies have exposed that parental conflict during separation can have a harmful impact on the adolescents well-being. This can result to lack of concentration during school class sessions, less motivation to complete designated assignments and a lack of class participation, which usually lead to academic failure (Kiernan, 1997). There is substantial evidence to suggest stress can be related to educational achievement and affect academic results obtained; for instance there have been various observational and longitudinal studies that have discovered trauma tic stress can lead to a decline in academic success (Hall, 2000). Whilst Kiernan (1997) takes into consideration the stresses of parental separation, she fails to acknowledge the relief some marital breakdowns can have; for example, one where the child or partner was suffering physical abuse. In this situation a positive outcome could occur in educational attainment rather than the negativities of academic failure. Also research suggests that the parental ability to recover from distress of bereavement, separation and divorce can affect the childrens ability to adapt to new changes. Effective communication and frequent contact between the adolescents and both the resident and non-resident parents are important in assisting teenagers to adjust and adapt to change. If change is not accepted and the adolescents do not adapt, studies have discovered that there is a higher possibility of poor educational outcomes for teenagers from separated families than those from intact ones. The distress teenagers may face fro